Resources and Development: Class-10th Geography Chapter-1 ( Easy NCERT Notes )

Resources are the basic requirements for the survival and progress of human beings. Everything that we use in our daily life—like land, water, minerals, forests, and energy—are resources. However, these resources are not unlimited. With increasing population, overuse, and unequal distribution, resources are getting depleted faster than they can be renewed. This chapter helps us understand the types of resources, their sustainable use, and the importance of resource planning to ensure balanced development for present and future generations.

Introduction

• Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy human needs and is technologically accessible, economically feasible, and culturally acceptable is called a resource.
  → Example: Land, water, minerals, forests, etc.
• Human beings are an important part of resources — they develop technology and transform natural materials into usable resources.

Classification of Resources

• The earth’s resources are not evenly distributed.
  → This depends on the nature of land, climate, and level of technological development in an area.
• Resource development means:
  • Using resources in a planned and sustainable way.
  • Balancing present needs with future availability.

Need for Resource Planning

• Resources are limited and unevenly distributed.
• Overexploitation of resources leads to environmental problems like:
  • Land degradation
  • Deforestation
  • Pollution
  • Global warming

Topic-1: Classification of Resources

Resources can be classified on different bases:

1. On the Basis of Origin

• (a) Biotic Resources:
  • Obtained from the biosphere (living things).
  • Have life and are renewable.
  • Examples: Plants, animals, forests, fisheries, humans.
• (b) Abiotic Resources:
  • Made up of non-living things.
  • Examples: Rocks, minerals, water, metals, air.

2. On the Basis of Exhaustibility

• (a) Renewable Resources:
  • Can be replenished naturally.
  • Get renewed after some time.
  • Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests, wildlife.
  • Note: If misused, even renewable resources can become scarce (like forests).
• (b) Non-Renewable Resources:
  • Get exhausted after use.
  • Take millions of years to form again.
  • Examples: Coal, petroleum, minerals, natural gas.

3. On the Basis of Ownership

• (a) Individual Resources:
  • Owned privately by individuals.
  • Examples: House, car, agricultural land, wells, etc.
• (b) Community-Owned Resources:
  • Accessible to all the community members.
  • Examples: Parks, playgrounds, village ponds, public roads.
• (c) National Resources:
  • Belong to the nation.
  • The government has control over them.
  • Examples: Forests, minerals, water bodies, railways, roads.
• (d) International Resources:
  • Managed by international institutions.
  • Found in the open ocean beyond 200 nautical miles of any country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
  • Example: Oceanic minerals beyond EEZ.

4. On the Basis of the Status of Development

• (a) Potential Resources:
  • Resources found in a region but not yet fully used.
  • Example: Rajasthan – wind & solar energy potential;
    Gujarat – tidal energy potential.
• (b) Developed Resources:
  • Resources which are surveyed, identified, and in use.
  • Quantity and quality are known.
• (c) Stock:
  • Resources available but not usable due to lack of technology.
  • Example: Hydrogen and oxygen can produce energy, but we don’t have advanced tech to use it economically.
• (d) Reserves:
  • Part of stock that can be used with existing technology.
  • Example: Forests, water, fossil fuels.

Topic-2: Development of Resources

1. Development of Resources

• Human beings use and develop resources to satisfy their needs and improve their living standards.
• Resource development means creating conditions so that resources can be used efficiently and sustainably.

2. Reasons for Resource Development

1. To fulfill human needs:
   • Resources are developed to meet increasing demands for food, water, energy, and raw materials.
2. To improve technology and economy:
   • Development of resources helps in industrial growth and economic progress.
3. To remove regional inequality:
   • Resource development ensures balanced growth among different regions of a country.

3. Problems Created by Over-Exploitation of Resources

1. Depletion of resources – especially non-renewable ones like coal and petroleum.
2. Environmental destruction – deforestation, soil erosion, pollution, etc.
3. Global issues – such as climate change and global warming.
4. Social and economic inequality – rich areas become richer, poor areas lag behind.

4. Need for Sustainable Development

• To ensure that resources are used judiciously so that future generations can also meet their needs.
• Emphasizes the balance between economic growth, environmental protection, and social equality.

Topic-3: Agenda 21

1. Sustainable Development (Introduction to the Idea)

• The idea of sustainable development came from the growing realization that uncontrolled use of resources was harming the environment.
• Sustainable development means: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Main Goals of Sustainable Development:

1. Use resources judiciously and avoid wastage.
2. Protect the environment and biodiversity.
3. Ensure equal distribution of resources among all.
4. Focus on both economic progress and environmental balance.

2. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

• A global conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992.
• Official name: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
• Attended by more than 100 world leaders and representatives from 170 countries.

Main Objectives of the Rio Summit:

1. To discuss how to protect the environment while ensuring economic development.
2. To find ways to reduce global environmental problems such as pollution, deforestation, and climate change.
3. To promote sustainable development at the global level.
4. To create a common plan of action for all countries — this plan became Agenda 21.

3. Agenda 21 – The Global Action Plan

• Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action adopted by 172 countries at the Rio Earth Summit, 1992.
• The number “21” stands for the 21st century — showing the goal of sustainable development for this century.

Main Aims of Agenda 21:

1. To achieve global sustainable development.
2. To combat major environmental problems like pollution, deforestation, global warming, and waste management.
3. To encourage countries to take environment-friendly actions at the local, national, and global levels.
4. To strengthen international cooperation for environmental protection and economic progress.
5. To involve local governments (like municipalities, panchayats) in making their own “Local Agenda 21” — local plans for sustainability.

Topic-4: Resource Planning

1. Meaning of Resource Planning

• Resource planning means the careful use and management of resources to ensure that they are available for both present and future generations.
• It involves identifying resources, using them wisely, and reducing waste or misuse.

2. Why Resource Planning is Important in India

1. Uneven Distribution of Resources:
   • Some regions have plenty of resources, while others have very few.
   • Example:
     • Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha – rich in minerals and forests.
     • Rajasthan – rich in solar and wind energy, but lacks water.
     • Arunachal Pradesh – rich in water, but lacks infrastructure.
2. Overuse and Depletion:
   • Rapid industrialization and population growth are causing overuse of natural resources.
3. Need for Sustainable Development:
   • To make sure that future generations also have enough resources.
   • Resource planning ensures judicious and equal use of resources.

3. Steps in Resource Planning

Resource planning involves three main stages:

a) Identification and Inventory of Resources

• Survey, map, and collect information about types and quantities of natural resources (like forests, water, minerals, land, etc.).
• Use technology and mapping tools to know where resources are found.

b) Planning Structure and Technology for Exploitation

• Make plans on how to use resources effectively with the right technology.
• Take care of environmental balance while using resources.
• Involve government policies and local people in planning.

c) Matching Resource Development Plans with National Development Plans

• Resource development should be linked with the overall economic and social goals of the country.
• Example: Developing transport, industries, and agriculture together for balanced growth.

4. Resource Planning in India

• India has been carrying out resource planning since Independence.
• It is done through Five Year Plans and various national programs.
• NITI Aayog (earlier Planning Commission) plays an important role.

Examples:

• Land use mapping by National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA).
• Watershed management and soil conservation programs.
• Renewable energy programs like solar and wind energy initiatives.

Topic-5: Land Resources

1. Meaning of Land Resources

• Land is a natural resource that supports all forms of life — human, animal, and plant.
• It provides the base for all economic and human activities such as:
  • Agriculture
  • Forestry
  • Industries
  • Housing
  • Transport and communication networks

2. Land Use Pattern in India

• India has a total geographical area of 3.28 million sq. km.
• Land is used for different purposes depending on physical factors (like soil, climate, topography) and human factors (like population and technology).

Major Land Use Categories (as per land records):

1. Forests
   • Land under forest area.
   • Provides wood, oxygen, and helps in maintaining ecological balance.
2. Land not available for cultivation
   • (a) Barren and wasteland – mountains, deserts, rocky areas.
   • (b) Land used for non-agricultural purposes – roads, buildings, industries, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
   • Permanent pastures and grazing land.
   • Land under tree crops and groves (not included in net sown area).
4. Fallow land
   • Land left uncultivated for a certain period to regain fertility.
   • Current fallow: left uncultivated for less than one year.
   • Other than current fallow: left uncultivated for 1–5 years or more.
5. Net Sown Area
   • Land actually used for cultivation in a year.
   • It can increase with better irrigation and farming methods.

3. Land Use in India (Facts and Observations)

• 43% of land is used for agriculture.
• Forests cover about 22% (ideal should be 33% as per the National Forest Policy).
• About 5% is used for non-agricultural purposes.
• Some land is wasteland or uncultivated due to poor soil, desert conditions, or rocky terrain.
• Net sown area varies from 80% in Punjab and Haryana to 10% in Arunachal Pradesh.

4. Land Degradation in India

• Land is getting degraded due to human activities and natural causes.

Major Causes of Land Degradation:

1. Deforestation – cutting trees for fuel, farming, or industries.
2. Overgrazing – animals eating away vegetation, leaving land bare.
3. Over-irrigation – leads to waterlogging and salinity (common in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP).
4. Mining – leaves deep scars and spoils the soil.
5. Industrial waste – pollutes soil and water.
6. Quarrying – loosens topsoil and makes land unfit for farming.

5. Measures to Conserve Land Resources

1. Afforestation – planting more trees.
2. Proper management of grazing – avoid overgrazing.
3. Soil conservation methods – contour ploughing, terrace farming, and crop rotation.
4. Control of mining and deforestation.
5. Check on over-irrigation – use modern irrigation techniques like drip irrigation.
6. Land reclamation – restore degraded land through soil treatment.
7. Use of organic fertilizers instead of chemicals.
8. Waste disposal – treat industrial waste before releasing it into the environment.

6. Importance of Land Resource Planning in India

• India’s population is increasing, but land area is limited and fixed.
• Thus, careful planning and conservation are necessary for:
  • Maintaining ecological balance.
  • Ensuring food security.
  • Promoting sustainable development.

Topic-6: Land Utilization

1. Meaning of Land Utilization

• Land utilization means how land is used by humans for different purposes such as farming, forestry, housing, industries, roads, and other activities.
• It helps us understand the pattern of land use and how it changes over time.

2. Land Use Pattern in India

• India’s total geographical area is 3.28 million sq. km, but not all of it is used in the same way.
• The pattern of land use in India depends on physical and human factors.

Physical Factors:

• Topography (surface shape of land)
• Climate
• Type and fertility of soil
• Availability of water

Human Factors:

• Population and density
• Level of economic development
• Technology and irrigation facilities
• Government policies and cultural traditions

3. Major Land Use Categories in India

According to the land-use records, land is classified into five main categories:

1. Forest Land:
   • Area covered with forests.
   • Important for maintaining ecological balance and providing resources like wood and herbs.
2. Land not available for cultivation:
   • Includes:
     a. Barren and wasteland – deserts, mountains, rocky land.
     b. Land used for non-agricultural purposes – buildings, roads, railways, industries, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
   • Includes:
     • Permanent pastures and grazing lands – for livestock.
     • Land under tree crops and groves (not included in net sown area).
4. Fallow Land:
   • Land left uncultivated for some time to regain fertility.
     • Current fallow: left uncultivated for less than 1 year.
     • Other than current fallow: left uncultivated for 1–5 years.
5. Net Sown Area:
   • Land that is actually cultivated in a year.
   • Can increase with better irrigation, fertilizers, and technology.

4. Changes in Land Use Pattern

• Over time, land use has changed due to:
  1. Increase in population and urbanization.
  2. Industrial development and building of infrastructure.
  3. Expansion of agriculture into forest areas.
  4. Technological progress (irrigation, fertilizers, etc.).
  5. Government policies on land reforms and conservation.

5. Problems Related to Land Use

• Uneven land distribution.
• Deforestation and land degradation.
• Overgrazing and soil erosion.
• Urban expansion reducing agricultural land.
• Pollution from industries and waste.

6. Need for Balanced Land Utilization

1. Use land according to its capability.
2. Prevent land degradation and deforestation.
3. Promote afforestation and soil conservation.
4. Encourage sustainable land use planning.
5. Maintain balance between development and environment.

Topic-7: Land Use Pattern in India

1. Meaning of Land Use Pattern

• Land use pattern means the different ways in which land is used by people for various purposes like farming, forestry, building houses, roads, industries, etc.
• It shows how much land is used for agriculture, forests, pastures, non-agricultural activities, etc.

2. Total Geographical Area of India

• Total area: 3.28 million sq. km
• However, the land use data is available for only 93% of this area because some regions like Jammu & Kashmir, parts of the Northeast, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands are difficult to survey due to topographical and political reasons.

3. Factors Affecting Land Use Pattern

Land use in India depends on a combination of physical and human factors:

A. Physical Factors:

1. Topography (landform):
   • Plains are used for agriculture.
   • Hilly and mountainous areas are used for forests and grazing.
2. Climate:
   • Determines the type of crops grown and land use activities.
   • Dry areas may remain barren or used for grazing.
3. Soil Type and Fertility:
   • Fertile soil → agriculture (like Indo-Gangetic Plains).
   • Poor soil → forest, pasture, or wasteland.

B. Human Factors:

1. Population Density:
   • Densely populated areas → more land for housing and farming.
   • Sparsely populated areas → more forest or unused land.
2. Level of Technology:
   • Modern irrigation, fertilizers, and machinery allow efficient land use even in dry or rough areas.
3. Economic and Industrial Development:
   • Industrial areas and cities use more land for non-agricultural purposes.
4. Government Policies:
   • Forest laws, land reforms, and conservation policies affect land use.

4. Regional Variations in Land Use

• Plains (e.g., Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh):
  • Large net sown area, dense population, and intensive agriculture.
• Mountains and Hilly Areas (e.g., Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh):
  • Dominated by forests, pastures, and uncultivated land.
• Plateau Regions (e.g., Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh):
  • Rich in minerals and forests, moderate agricultural land.
• Arid Regions (e.g., Rajasthan):
  • Large barren and wasteland, limited agriculture due to low rainfall.

5. Problems of Land Use in India

1. Land degradation due to deforestation, mining, and overgrazing.
2. Soil erosion caused by wind, water, and human activities.
3. Urbanization and industrialization reducing agricultural land.
4. Overuse of fertilizers and irrigation causing salinity and waterlogging.
5. Unequal distribution of cultivable land among regions.

6. Measures for Improving Land Use Pattern

1. Afforestation – increase forest area to 33%.
2. Soil conservation techniques – contour ploughing, terrace farming, crop rotation.
3. Proper irrigation management – avoid waterlogging and salinity.
4. Land reforms – fair distribution of land among people.
5. Reclamation of wasteland through tree plantation and soil treatment.
6. Urban planning – limit construction on fertile agricultural land.
7. Awareness and education on sustainable land use.

Topic-8: Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

1. What is Land Degradation?

• Land degradation means the decline in the quality and productivity of land due to human and natural factors.
• It reduces the land’s fertility, usefulness, and ability to support life.

2. Causes of Land Degradation in India

India faces serious land degradation problems due to both natural and human-made causes.

A. Human Factors

1. Deforestation
   • Cutting down trees for fuel, timber, or farming reduces forest cover.
   • Without trees, soil gets eroded easily by wind and rain.
2. Overgrazing
   • Animals eat grass faster than it can grow back.
   • This leaves the soil bare, causing erosion and loss of fertility.
3. Mining and Quarrying
   • Mining activities leave deep scars, heaps of waste material, and remove topsoil.
   • Example: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh suffer from mining-related degradation.
4. Over-irrigation
   • Excess use of water in dry areas leads to waterlogging and salinity (salt deposits).
   • Common in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
5. Industrial Effluents (Waste)
   • Industrial waste and chemicals pollute land and water bodies.
   • Especially in areas like Gujarat and Maharashtra.
6. Urbanization and Construction
   • Expanding cities and building roads, houses, and factories convert fertile agricultural land into concrete surfaces.

B. Natural Factors

1. Wind and Water Erosion
   • Strong winds and flowing water wash away the top fertile layer of soil.
2. Landslides and Floods
   • Heavy rains in hilly regions cause landslides, damaging soil structure.

3. Effects of Land Degradation

• Loss of soil fertility and productivity.
• Reduction in agricultural yield.
• Increase in desert-like conditions (desertification).
• Disturbance of ecological balance.
• Decline in groundwater levels.
• Loss of vegetation and biodiversity.

4. Measures to Conserve and Manage Land

To prevent and control land degradation, various conservation measures are taken:

A. Afforestation and Reforestation

• Planting trees and restoring forest cover protect soil from erosion.
• Forests also maintain the water cycle and prevent floods.

B. Proper Management of Grazing

• Control overgrazing by rotational grazing and fencing pastures.
• Grow grass and fodder plants to feed livestock sustainably.

C. Soil Conservation Methods

1. Contour Ploughing:
   • Ploughing along the contour lines on slopes to reduce water runoff.
2. Terrace Farming:
   • Making step-like terraces on hills to slow down water flow.
3. Strip Cropping:
   • Growing different crops in alternate strips to reduce erosion.
4. Windbreaks/Shelterbelts:
   • Planting trees along field boundaries to stop wind erosion.
5. Crop Rotation:
   • Alternating crops to maintain soil fertility.

D. Proper Irrigation Practices

• Avoid over-irrigation to prevent salinity and waterlogging.
• Use drip and sprinkler systems for efficient water use.

E. Control of Mining and Quarrying

• Fill up mining pits and plant trees after mining (reclamation).
• Use eco-friendly methods of extraction.

F. Industrial and Urban Waste Management

• Treat industrial waste before discharge.
• Promote recycling and proper disposal of waste materials.

5. Steps Taken by the Government

1. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) – promotes tree plantation and forest regeneration.
2. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) – conserves soil and water in rainfed areas.
3. Desert Development Programme (DDP) – controls desertification in dry regions.
4. National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) – focuses on reclaiming degraded land.

6. Relation Between Land Degradation and Sustainable Development

• Sustainable development means using natural resources in a way that meets present needs without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs.
• Preventing land degradation ensures long-term productivity, food security, and ecological balance — all of which are key goals of sustainable development.

Topic-9: Soil as a Resource

1. What is Soil?

• Soil is the topmost layer of the Earth’s surface which supports plant growth.
• It is a mixture of minerals, organic matter (humus), air, water, and living organisms.

2. Importance of Soil

• Essential for agriculture – provides nutrients for crops.
• Supports vegetation – basis for forests and pastures.
• Habitat for many microorganisms and animals.
• Controls water cycle – helps in groundwater recharge.
• Supports human settlements – used for building and construction.
• Source of raw materials like clay, sand, and minerals.

3. Formation of Soil (Pedogenesis)

• The process of soil formation is called pedogenesis.
• Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks (breaking down of rocks into small particles) and the mixing of organic matter over thousands of years.

4. Distribution of Soil in India

• Alluvial Soil → 43% of total area (most widespread).
• Black Soil → Deccan Plateau region.
• Red and Yellow Soil → Peninsular Plateau.
• Laterite Soil → Coastal and hilly areas with heavy rainfall.
• Arid Soil → Western Rajasthan.
• Forest Soil → Hilly and mountainous regions.

5. Soil Erosion and Degradation

• Soil erosion means the removal of top fertile layer of soil by wind or water.
• It reduces soil fertility and agricultural productivity.

Causes of Soil Erosion:

1. Deforestation
2. Overgrazing
3. Overuse of chemical fertilizers
4. Improper farming methods (ploughing up and down slopes)
5. Floods and wind

Types of Soil Erosion:

• Gully erosion – deep cuts or channels formed by running water (common in Chambal basin).
• Sheet erosion – topsoil removed in thin layers by rainwater.
• Wind erosion – common in arid regions (Rajasthan).

6. Soil Conservation Measures

To protect soil from erosion and maintain fertility, the following steps are taken:

1. Afforestation – planting trees to hold soil together.
2. Contour Ploughing – ploughing along contour lines on slopes to reduce runoff.
3. Terrace Farming – making terraces or steps on hills to stop water flow.
4. Strip Cropping – alternate strips of crops reduce erosion.
5. Windbreaks and Shelterbelts – planting trees along fields to reduce wind speed.
6. Crop Rotation – changing crops to maintain soil nutrients.
7. Proper Irrigation and Drainage – to avoid waterlogging and salinity.
8. Control of Overgrazing – regulating grazing in pastures.

Topic-10: Alluvial Soil

• Alluvial soil is the most important and widely spread soil in India.
• It is formed by the deposition of silt, sand, and clay brought down by rivers from the mountains to the plains.
• Found mostly in river valleys and plains.

1. Formation of Alluvial Soil

• Formed by river deposits of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra systems.
• The rivers bring fine silt, sand, and clay from the Himalayas and deposit it on the plains during floods.
• This process happens every year, which renews the fertility of the soil.

2. Areas Where Found

• Extensive in the northern plains – Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
• Also found in delta regions of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers in peninsular India.
• Covers about 43% of India’s total land area.

3. Crops Grown in Alluvial Soil

Because of its fertility, it supports a wide variety of crops, such as:

• Rice
• Wheat
• Sugarcane
• Maize
• Pulses
• Oilseeds
• Jute and cotton (in some areas)

4. Importance of Alluvial Soil

1. Highly fertile – supports high crop yield.
2. Well-drained and deep – suitable for irrigation and multiple cropping.
3. Supports dense population due to agricultural prosperity.
4. Renewable nature – fertility restored each year by floods.

5. Problems / Limitations

• In some areas, it may lack nitrogen and humus, so it needs fertilizers.
• Flooding may sometimes cause waterlogging and soil erosion.
• Overuse of chemical fertilizers reduces soil fertility.

Topic-11: Black Soil

• Black soil is one of the most fertile and important soils in India.
• It is also known as Regur Soil or Black Cotton Soil.
• It is called black soil because of its dark color, which is due to the presence of iron and humus.

1. Areas Where Found

Black soil is mainly found in the Deccan Plateau region, covering parts of:

• Maharashtra
• Madhya Pradesh
• Gujarat
• Andhra Pradesh
• Tamil Nadu
• Northern Karnataka

2. Formation of Black Soil

• Formed from the weathering of volcanic rocks (basalt) of the Deccan Trap region.
• Over millions of years, these lava rocks broke down to form this dark, fertile soil.

3. Importance of Black Soil

1. Highly fertile and supports a wide range of crops.
2. Moisture-retaining capacity makes it ideal for dry regions.
3. Rich in minerals, which promotes plant growth.
4. Self-aerating property (cracks in summer) helps the soil remain healthy.

4. Problems / Limitations

• Becomes sticky when wet and hard when dry, making ploughing difficult.
• Lacks nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter, so it needs fertilizers.
• Waterlogging can occur in some low-lying areas due to high clay content.

Topic-12: Red and Yellow Soil

• Red and Yellow soils are widespread soils found in many parts of India.
• These soils are formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks—especially granite.
• The red color comes from a high amount of iron oxide (rust-like substance).
• When the soil is moist, it appears yellow; when dry, it looks red.

1. Areas Where Found

These soils are mostly found in:

• Parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh
• Southern parts of the Gangetic plain
• Jharkhand
• Bihar Plateau region
• Madhya Pradesh
• Tamil Nadu
• Karnataka

2. Formation of Red and Yellow Soil

• Formed due to the weathering of ancient crystalline (igneous and metamorphic) rocks.
• When iron in the rocks oxidizes (reacts with air), it gives the soil a red color.
• In areas with more moisture, the iron gets hydrated (mixed with water), giving it a yellowish shade.

3. Importance

1. Covers large parts of southern and eastern India.
2. Useful for dry farming if properly managed.
3. With irrigation and fertilizers, it supports a variety of crops.

4. Problems / Limitations

• Lacks nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus.
• Needs proper irrigation and manure for good productivity.
• Can become hard when dry, reducing moisture retention.

Topic-13: Laterite Soil

• The word “Laterite” comes from the Latin word ‘Later’, meaning brick.
• Laterite soil looks red or brown and becomes hard like a brick when it dries.
• It is formed in hot and wet tropical regions due to intense leaching (washing away of nutrients by heavy rain).

1. Formation of Laterite Soil

• Formed by the leaching process: Heavy rainfall removes silica and nutrients from the upper layers of the soil.
• Only iron and aluminum compounds remain, giving the soil its reddish color.

2. Areas Where Found

Laterite soil is mainly found in:

• Western Ghats (Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra)
• Eastern Ghats (Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh)
• Parts of Meghalaya, Assam, and Jharkhand

3. Crops Grown in Laterite Soil

With proper manure and fertilizers, the following crops can be grown:

• Tea
• Coffee
• Cashew nuts
• Rubber
• Coconut
• Tapioca and Paddy (in Kerala and coastal regions)

4. Importance

1. Supports plantation crops (like tea, coffee, cashew).
2. Used for brick-making due to its hardness.
3. Found in hilly regions, so it helps prevent soil erosion when properly managed.

5. Problems / Limitations

• Poor fertility because of nutrient loss (leaching).
• Needs manure and fertilizers for better crop yield.
• Gets easily eroded on slopes during heavy rainfall.

Topic-14: Arid Soil

• Arid soil is found in dry and desert regions of India.
• The word “arid” means dry — these soils form in areas with very little rainfall and high temperature.
• Because of the lack of moisture, they are sandy, salty, and less fertile.

1. Areas Where Found

Mainly found in:

• Rajasthan (Thar Desert)
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Punjab (Western parts)
• Southern Haryana and Western Madhya Pradesh

2. Formation of Arid Soil

• Formed due to dry climate, high evaporation, and wind activity.
• Winds blow away the top soil and deposit sand.
• Mineral salts accumulate on the surface because water evaporates quickly.
• That’s why arid soil is often salty or alkaline.

3. Crops Grown in Arid Soil

With irrigation, arid soil can be made productive. Crops grown include:

• Millets (Bajra, Jowar)
• Barley
• Wheat
• Pulses
• Maize

4. Improvement and Fertility

• When irrigated properly, arid soil becomes fertile because it contains adequate minerals.
• Irrigation washes away the salt and adds moisture, making the soil suitable for farming.

5. Importance

1. Covers large parts of India’s dry regions.
2. Can be made fertile with irrigation and fertilizers.
3. Important for growing millets and dryland crops.
4. Helps in understanding desert ecosystem and soil management.

6. Problems / Limitations

• Very low moisture.
• High salt content (saline and alkaline).
• Prone to wind erosion.
• Poor humus and organic matter.
• Low natural fertility.

Topic-15: Forest Soil

• Forest soil (also called Mountain soil) is found in the hilly and forested regions of India.
• These areas receive heavy rainfall and have dense vegetation.
• The soil is formed by the weathering of rocks and decomposition of organic matter (leaves, plants, etc.).

1. Areas Where Found

Mainly found in the:

• Himalayan region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh)
• Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
• Some parts of Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Assam hill regions

2. Formation of Forest Soil

• Formed due to weathering of rocks under forest cover.
• Decaying leaves and plants add humus (organic matter) to the soil.
• The type and thickness of the soil depend on the slope of the land and climate.

3. Crops Grown in Forest Soil

Depending on height and climate, different crops are grown:

• Tea and Coffee
• Spices (cardamom, cloves, pepper)
• Fruits (apple, peach, plum, oranges)
• Tropical crops in lower slopes (rice, maize)

4. Importance

1. Helps in plantation crops and horticulture (fruit farming).
2. Provides forest resources like timber, herbs, and firewood.
3. Supports the ecosystem of hilly and forest areas.
4. Source of livelihood for hill communities.

5. Problems / Limitations

• Soil erosion due to steep slopes and rainfall.
• Thin soil cover on upper slopes.
• Difficult to cultivate without terrace farming.
• Landslides can wash away fertile soil.

Topic-16: Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

• Soil erosion means the removal or wearing away of the top layer of soil by natural agents like wind, water, or human activities.
• The topsoil is the most fertile layer because it contains humus and nutrients.
• When this layer is lost, soil fertility decreases, and land becomes unproductive.

1. Causes of Soil Erosion

A. Natural Causes

1. Wind erosion – strong winds blow away loose, dry soil (common in arid areas like Rajasthan).
2. Water erosion – running water from rainfall or rivers washes away soil.
3. Floods – floodwater carries away large amounts of topsoil.

B. Human Causes

1. Deforestation – cutting trees removes roots that hold the soil together.
2. Overgrazing – animals eat away vegetation, leaving the soil bare.
3. Over-irrigation – causes waterlogging and salinity.
4. Unscientific farming practices – like ploughing along slopes.
5. Mining and construction – loosen soil and cause erosion.

2. Effects of Soil Erosion

• Loss of fertility – topsoil rich in humus is removed.
• Reduced agricultural productivity.
• Desertification – fertile land turns into desert.
• Siltation of rivers and dams (due to soil washed into them).
• Floods and droughts increase due to disturbed soil-water balance.

3. Methods of Soil Conservation

Soil conservation means protecting soil from erosion and maintaining its fertility through various methods.

A. In Hilly and Mountain Areas

1. Contour Ploughing – ploughing along the contour lines to slow down water flow.
2. Terrace Farming – cutting flat steps (terraces) on hill slopes to reduce runoff and erosion.
3. Afforestation – planting trees to hold the soil with their roots.

B. In Plains and Agricultural Areas

1. Strip Cropping – growing crops in alternate strips to reduce soil loss by wind or water.
2. Crop Rotation – growing different crops alternately to maintain soil fertility.
3. Shelter Belts – planting rows of trees to reduce wind speed and protect soil (common in Rajasthan).
4. Mulching – covering soil with plant leaves or straw to reduce evaporation and erosion.
5. Contour Bunding – making small barriers (bunds) along contours to stop water flow.

4. Government and Community Efforts

• Afforestation and reforestation programs (like “Van Mahotsav”).
• Control of mining and construction activities.
• Use of scientific land management and irrigation techniques.
• Watershed management to conserve water and prevent soil loss.

Conclusion

Resources are essential for human development, but their careless and unplanned use can lead to serious environmental problems such as soil erosion, land degradation, deforestation, and climate change. Therefore, it is important to use resources wisely and adopt sustainable practices, proper planning, and conservation methods. Only by balancing development with resource protection can we secure a safe and prosperous future for the coming generations.

Full Chapter Explanation

Detailed notes of other chapters:

Forests and Wildlife Resources: Class-10th Geography Chapter-2 ( Easy NCERT Notes )