The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe (Notes)- Class-10th History Chapter-1

August 30, 2025 - By studyseed

The 19th century was a turning point in the history of Europe, marked by the growth of nationalism and the struggle for nation-states. After the French Revolution, the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity spread across the continent, inspiring people to fight against absolute monarchies and foreign rule.

This chapter, The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe, explains how different nations like France, Germany and Italy were unified, how symbols and allegories helped in spreading nationalism, and how nationalism later turned into imperialism, leading towards the First World War. And here’s the detailed notes of this chapter of class 10th.

Introduction

1. Meaning of Nationalism

Nationalism= a feeling of unity and pride among people who share common history, culture and territory.
It is the belief that these people should be free to govern themselves.
In the 19th century, nationalism became a force that reshaped politics in Europe.

2. The Famous Painting- “The Dream Of Worldwide Democratic And Social Republic”

Painted in 1848 by Frederick Sorrieu, a French artist.
Depicts his vision of a world made up of “democratic and social republics”.
Main features of a painting:
1. Procession of people from different nations of Europe and America, marching towards a statue of liberty.
2. Statue of Liberty holding a torch in one hand (symbol of enlightenment/ knowledge) and Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
3. Broken chains lie on the ground- symbolising the end of absolutist rule.
4. Flags of different nations are carried by groups, representing newly formed nation states.
5. Figures of Christ, saints and angles– symbolising fraternity among nations.

3. Who is in the procession?

First Group: People of the United States and the Switzerland.
Second Group: France, followed by Germany, Austria, Italy, Hungary and other European nations.
The procession shows the idea that different nations, once free, will march together in unity.

4. The Artists Message

Frederick Sorrieu imagined a world without monarchies and aristocratic privileges.
His paintings expressed nationalist and democratic ideas spreading across Europe in the 19th century.

Topic-1: The French Revolution And The Idea Of Nation

1. French Revolution (1789)- Beginning of Nationalism In Europe

The French Revolution marked the first clear expression of Nationalism in Europe.
The political and constitutional changes during the revolution led to the transfer of power from monarchy to the people.

2. Reforms introduced by the Revolutionaries:

Abolition of monarchy and the establishment of constitutional monarchy (adopted a constitution and king was forced to rule according to it) and later a republic.
Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Introduction of a new French flag- tricolour (replaced the royal standard).
New hymns (poems), oaths and martyr’s commemoration to inspire unity.
Uniform laws for all citizens.
Standardised weights and measure system.
Promotion of French language as the common national language and the regional dialects were discouraged.

3. Expansion of Nationalism Beyond France:

The Revolutionaries saw themselves as messengers of Liberty.
They helped people in other parts of Europe to overthrow oppressive rulers.
Napoleon Bonaparte carried revolutionary ideas across Europe through wars and reforms.

4. Napoleon and the spread of Revolutionary ideals

Positive impacts:

Abolished feudal system in many parts of Europe.
Introduced Napoleonic Code, also known as Civil Code of 1804:
1. Equality before the law.
2. Abolition of privileges by birth.
3. Secured the Right to property.
Administrative efficiency and modern taxation systems introduced.

Negative impacts:

Increased taxation and censorship.
Forced recruitment in French army, especially in occupied territories.
Napoleon’s expansion felt like French Imperialism to many.

5. Mixed Reactions In Europe

Initially welcomed by liberals and middle classes as liberators.
Over time, people in conquered regions resented French control.

Topic-2: The Making Of Nationalism In Europe

1. Nation-State in the 19th century

Nation-state= a state where citizens share common identity (language, history, culture) and are united under one government.
This identity was often forged through struggles, revolutions and political unnification.
In mid-18th century Europe, the idea of the nation-state was emerging, replacing multi-national monarchies.

2. The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Aristocracy (Privileged class):

Dominant class in Europe socially and politically.
Nobles owned large estates and held high positions in the army, government and church.
Characteristics:
1. Spoke French across Europe.
2. Intermarried among themselves.
3. Lifestyle was similar regardless of region.
Aristocracy was a small minority but had huge influence.

The New Middle Class:

Emerged from industrialisation and trade.
Included industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
Played an important role in spreading liberal and nationalist ideas.

3. Peasants and working class

Majority of the population were peasants.
Varied conditions:
1. Western Europe- most peasants were small landowners.
2. Eastern/ Central Europe- large estates owned by nobles, serfs worked on the land.
Peasant communities often had local customs and were less involved in political change initially.

4. What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?

Liberalism in the early 19th century:
1. For Middle Class: meant freedom for individuals.
2. Politically: demanded constitutional government with elected representatives, no absolute monarchy.
3. Economically: freedom of markets and removal of trade restrictions.
Example: Zollverein (1834)- Customs Union led by Prussia.
1. Abolished tariff barriers in German states.
2. Standardised currencies, weights and measures.

Topic-3: A New Conservatism After 1815

1. Background:

1815: Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
European governments wanted to restore the old order that existed before the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars.
This reactionary approach was called Conservatism.

2. Meaning of Conservatism:

Conservatism: political philosophy aiming to preserve traditional institutions .
Not always opposed to change, but wanted gradual change rather than revolution.
Believed in:
1. Monarchies.
2. Aristocratic privileges.
3. Established churches.
4. Social hierarchies.

3. Congress of Vienna (1815):

Meeting of European powers to redraw political boundaries after Napoleon’s defeat.
Main leaders:
1. Austria- Duke Metternich (host)
2. Russia- Tsar Alexander I
3. Britain- Lord Castlereagh
4. Prussia- King Frederick William III
Main decisions:
1. Restore old monarchies, displaced by Napoleon.
2. Create a balance of power to prevent future wars.
3. Strengthen countries surrounding France to contain it (e.g., Netherlands created by merging Belgium and Holland).
No encouragement for liberal or nationalist ideas.

4. Political Outcome:

Restoration of Bourbon dynasty in France.
Kingdoms of Italy placed under old rulers.
Germany remained a confederation of 39 states under Austrian dominance.
No recognition of the principle of popular sovereignty.

5. Repression of Liberal and Nationalist Movements:

Censorship off newspapers and books.
Secret police and spies to suppress revolutionary activities.
Banned political clubs and gatherings.
Punished those spreading nationalist or liberal ideas.

6. Reaction of Liberals and Nationalists:

Many liberals and nationalists saw the Treaty of Vienna as the betrayal of the ideals of 1789 (The French Revolution).
Secret societies grew in number (e.g., Carbonari in Italy).
Discontent led to uprisings and revolutions later in 1930 and 1948.

Topic-4: The Revolutionaries

1. Who were the revolutionaries?

People who opposed monarchy and conservatism in Europe after 1815.
Mostly liberals, nationalists, students, educated middle class and sometimes aristocrats who believed in charge.
Worked secretly because monarchies and conservative governments suppressed liberal and nationalist ideas.

2. Goals of the revolutionaries:

To create nation-states based on:
1. Liberty,
2. Equality,
3. Fraternity,
4. Democratic principles.
End the rule of monarchies and aristocracies.
Unite fragmented states into one nation (e.g., Italy, Germany).
Spread the idea of universal freedom and people’s sovereignty.

3. Secret Societies:

Since conservative rulers banned liberal and nationalist activities, revolutionaries operated through secret societies.
Purpose of these groups:
1. Educate people about nationalism.
2. Train revolutionaries.
3. Spread ideas of liberty, freedom and equality.
Examples:
1. Carbonari in Italy.
2. Secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland, Poland.

4. Giuseppe Mazzini – The Revolutionary Leader

Born in Genoa (Italy).
Joined a secret society called the Carbonari at a young age.
Founded “Young Italy” in 1831- aimed at unifying Italy as a republic.
Founded “Young Europe” in 1834- based in Switzerland, include members from Italy, Germany, Poland and France.
Believed that nations were the natural units of mankind.
Strong critic of monarchy, believed in democratic republics.

5. Significance of the Revolutionaries

Kept alive the spirit of liberalism and nationalism when conservative governments tried to suppress them.
Their efforts inspired the uprisings of 1830 and 1848 across Europe.
Though many of their movements failed immediately, they laid the foundation for future unification of countries like Italy and Germany.

Topic-5: The Age Of Revolutions (1830-1848)

1. Background:

After the Congress of Vienna (1815), conservative forces tried to restore monarchies and suppress liberal/nationalist movements.
But the spirit of nationalism and liberalism (freedom, equality, democracy) continued to inspire people across Europe.
The period 1830-1848 saw a series of revolutions and uprisings against absolute rule.

2. Revolution of 1830 (France):

In July 1830, the Bourbon King Charles X (France) was overthrown.
A constitutional monarchy was established under Louis Philippe.
Inspired uprisings across Europe (Belgium, Italy, Poland).

3. Belgium:

The Belgian provinces, previously merged with the Kingdom of the Netherlands (as decided at Vienna, 1815), revolted in 1830.
Outcome- Belgium gained independence from the Netherlands.

4. Greece and the Struggle for Independence

Greece had been under Ottoman (Turkish) Empire control since the 15th century.
Beginning in 1821, a nationalist struggle started.
Greek independence was supported by educated Europeans, writers, artists (philhellenes= lovers of Greek culture).
Example: English poet Lord Byron actively supported the Greek struggle.
Finally, with the help of Britain, France and Russia- Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognised Greece as an independent nation.

5. Key outcomes of 1830-1848 Revolutions

Spread of liberalism and nationalism across Europe.
Independence of Greece and Belgium.
Increased demand for constitutional government.
Romanticism and language became powerful tools for national identity.
Even though, many uprisings were suppressed, they laid the foundation for future unifications (Italy and Germany).

Topic-6: The Romantic Imagination and the National Feeling

1. What is Romanticism?

Romanticism was a cultural movement (late 18th-19th century) in literature, art and music.
It reacted against the focus on reason, science and order of the Enlightenment.
Emphasised:
1. Emotions and Imagination
2. Individual creativity
3. Love for nature and folk traditions.

2. Romanticism and Nationalism:

Romantic artists, poets and musicians used culture (folk songs, dances, literature, art) to express national identity.
Aim– to develop a sense of collective belonging and national pride among people who were politically divided.
Romanticism gave nationalist movements a cultural foundation.

3. Johann Gottfried Herder- German philosopher

Believed that true spirit of a nation (Volksgeist) was found in its folk culture.
Every nation has its unique identity, expressed through folk songs, poetry, dances and traditions.
Collecting and preserving folk culture was important to awaken nationalist feelings.

4. Examples of Romantic Nationalism:

Germany:

Brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm (Grimm brothers) collected folk tales, songs and legends- promoted German language and identity.

Poland:

After Russian occupation, Polish language was banned in schools.
Clergy (priests) used Polish in churches as a symbol of resistance.
Polish poets, writers and musicians kept nationalism alive through literature and music.

Other countries:

Poets and artists glorified national heroes, struggles and landscapes to inspire unity.

5. Language as a National Identity

Language became a powerful political weapon against foreign domination.
Example:
In Poland, promoting Polish language and culture was seen as an act of resistance to Russian rule.
Language helped ordinary people connect emotionally to the idea of a nation.

Topic-7: Hunger, Hardships and the Popular Revolt

1. The 1830s-1840s Economic and Social Crisis

Europe faced severe hardships in the 1830s and especially the 1840s.

Problems were both economic and social:

a) Population Growth

Rapid population growth in Europe- high demand for food and jobs.
Agriculture could not keep up with rising population.

b) Food Shortages

Bad harvest of 1845- widespread food shortages.
Price of bread (basic food) rose sharply.
Poor classes (workers, peasants) were the worst affected.

c) Unemployment

Population Growth + Industrial Revolution= overcrowding in cities.
Many small workshops closed due to industrialisation and competition from machine made goods.
Workers lost jobs- rising unemployment.

2. Conditions of different classes:

Peasants: Suffered due to high food prices, poor harvests and heavy taxes.
Workers (Artisans, Labourers):
1. Jobless due to industrialisation.
2. Faced low wages, long working hours, unsafe working conditions.
Middle Class:
1. Educated but politically excluded from power.
2. Wanted more political rights and constitutional reforms.

3. 1848- Year of Revolutions

By 1848, discontent turned into popular revolts across Europe.
Reasons:
1. Economic hardships (unemployment, hunger, food scarcity).
2. Social Inequality (peasants and workers exploited).
3. Political repression by monarchs and conservatives.

4. The French Case (February Revolution of 1848)

In France, food shortages and unemployment hit the hardest.
Workers and small peasants protested against the monarchy of Louis Philippe (the “citizen king”).
February 1848: Revolt in Paris- King Louis Philippe abdicated (left throne).
A Republic was proclaimed.
The Republic:
1. Granted Universal Male Suffrage (right to vote for all men above 21 years of age).
2. Promised to create jobs through “National Workshops”.

5. Revolts in other parts of Europe

The Revolutionary wave spread from France to Germany, Italy, Austria, and the Habsburg Empire.
Workers, peasants, students and middle class liberals came together demanding:
1. End of monarchy.
2. More rights and freedom.
3. National Unification (in Germany and Italy).

6. Significance:

1848 showed that economic hardship + political repression= mass revolt.
Even though many revolts were suppressed by armies of kings, they:
1. Inspired future nationalist movements.
2. Spread the ideas of freedom, equality and nationalism.
3. Highlighted the link between economic problems and political struggles.

Topic-8: 1848- The Revolution of the Liberals

1. Who were the Liberals?

Mostly belonged to the educated middle class:
Professors, teachers, doctors, lawyers, writers, officials, merchants, businessmen.
Demanded:
1. End of autocracy (absolute monarchies)
2. Constitutional rights.
3. Nation-states based on liberal principles (freedom, equality, representative government).

2. The Context- 1848 Revolutions

1848 was a year of widespread revolutions in Europe.
In France: Workers and peasants revolted- Monarchy of Louis Philippe overthrown- Republic declared.
Inspired by France, middle-class liberals across Europe also rose up.

3. Demands of the Liberals

Constitutionalism- a written constitution and a representative government.
Freedom of the press- No censorship by kings.
Freedom of association and speech.
National unification (especially in Germany and Italy).
Equality before law (end of aristocratic privileges).

4. The Frankfurt Parliament (German Case)

May 1848: 831 elected representatives from all German states assembled at Frankfurt.
Drafted a constitution for a German nation:
1. To be governed by a constitutional monarchy.
2. Parliament offered the crown to King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia.
Result:
1. The King refused- he did not want to accept a crown from the people (he believed kings ruled by God’s will, not people’s choice).
2. The Parliament was disbanded- crushed by the army.

5. The Social Base of the Revolt:

Middle class liberals led the movement.
But they neglected the demands of workers and peasants:
1. Workers wanted better wages and working conditions.
2. Peasants wanted end of serfdom and feudal dues.
Since their issues were ignored, workers and peasants withdrew support from the liberals.
This weakened the revolutionaries.

6. Results and Failures

Monarchs used their armies to crush the revolts.
Liberal movements failed in achieving their immediate goals.
But the revolutions were important because they:
1. Spread the ideas of liberalism and constitutionalism.
2. Showed the growing demand for national unification in Germany and Italy.
3. Inspired future nationalist struggles.

Topic-9: The Making of Germany

1. Germany before unification

In the early 19th century, Germany was not a single nation.
It was a confederation of 39 states under the control of the German Confederation (created in 1815 by the Congress/meeting of Vienna).
These states were dominated by powerful monarchies and aristocracies (e.g., Austria and Prussia).
Prussia gradually emerged as the leader of German unification because of its strong army and efficient bureaucracy.

2. The role of Nationalism and Liberal Movements

The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity spread during the French revolution inspired German middle classes.
People demanded:
1. A nation-state instead of fragmented kingdoms.
2. Freedom of the press.
3. Constitutional rights.
4. Economic unity (free trade and uniform laws).
However, rulers of different German states suppressed these movements.

3. Economic Unity- Zollverein (1834)

To strengthen German economic ties, Prussia initiated the Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1834.
Zollverein abolished tariffs (custom duties) between German states.
It unified 29 states initially (later almost all German states except Austria).
Promoted:
1. Free movements of goods.
2. Standardization of weights and measures.
3. Growth of industries and railways.
Zollverein created a strong economic foundation for political unification.

4. Political unification-The Role Of Bismarck

Otto Von Bismarck (Prime Minister of Prussia) is called the “Architect of German unification).
Believed in “Blood and Iron” policy (war and military power instead of speeches and debates).
He used diplomacy and wars to achieve unification.

5. Wars of German Unification

Bismarck waged three wars in 7 years (1864-1871) with the support of the Prussian army and bureaucracy:

a) Danish War (1864):

Fought against Denmark (with Austria’s help).
Won and gained territories of Schleswig and Holstein.

b) Austro-Prussian War (1866):

Fought against Austria.
Resulted in Prussian victory.
Austria was excluded from German affairs- strengthened Prussia’s dominance.

c) Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871):

Fought against France.
United the North German Confederation with the Southern German states.
Defeat of France created a sense of strong German Nationalism.

6. Proclamation of the German Empire (1871)

On 18th January 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (France).
King Kaiser William I of Prussia was crowned as the German Emperor.
Unification was completed under Prussian leadership.

7. Features of the New German Empire

It was a federal state, but power was concentrated in Prussia.
Authoritarian in nature- No liberal constitution as demanded by earlier revolutionaries.
The middle class, who earlier fought for freedom and democracy, had to compromise with the monarchic-military system.

Topic-10: Italy Unified

1. Italy before unification

Early 19th century: Italy was a fragmented land.
Divided into seven states:
1. North- under Austrian Habsburgs.
2. Central- rule by the Pope.
3. South- Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Bourbon kings).
Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian dynasty.

2. Role of Nationalists

Giuseppe Mazzini:
1. Founded “Young Italy” in 1831.
2. Believed in a united, republican Italy.
3. Inspired youth, but his efforts were unsuccessful.
Count Camillo de Cavour:
1. Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont.
2. Believed in monarchy-led unification.
3. Used diplomacy and alliances (especially with France).
Giuseppe Garibaldi:
1. A revolutionary and fighter.
2. Led military campaigns in the south of Italy.

3. Steps Towards Unification:

1848 Revolutions- failed but spread the idea of unity.
Cavour’s diplomacy (1859)- allied with France to defeat Austria, won Lombardy.
Garibaldi’s campaign (1860-61):
1. Captured Sicily and Naples.
2. Handed these territories to King Victor Emmanuel II.
1861- King Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of Italy- Unification partially achieved.
Completion of Unification: By 1871, Italy became a united nation-state with Rome as its capital.

4. Nature of the New Italian state:

Italy unified under monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II.
It was not a democratic republic as Mazzini has dreamed.
Large regional differences remained (North= industrial, South= agricultural and poor).

Topic-11: The Strange Case Of Britain

1. Background:

Unlike Germany and Italy, Britain’s unification was not sudden and not through revolution or war.
It was the result of a long process of parliamentary actions.
Before the 18th century:
1. Britain was made up of different ethnic groups: English, Welsh, Scots and Irish.
2. Each had its own culture, traditions and political system.

2. Formation of the United Kingdom

1688- English parliament seized power from the monarchy.
Gradual unification through Acts of Union:

1. 1707- Act of Union between England and Scotland
a) Created the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
b) Scotland’s culture and institutions were suppressed.
c) Scots forced to accept English language and culture.

2. Ireland
a) Ireland was a catholic country under English (Protestant) domination.
b) 1798- Irish rebellion led by Wolfe Tone and United Irishmen (failed).
c) 1801- Ireland forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
d) Protestants supported union; Catholics faced suppression.

3. Symbols of British nation:

English culture dominated over the other groups (Scots, Welsh, Irish).
New symbols were created to promote a sense of British identity:
British Flag (Union Jack).
National Anthem (God save our Noble King/Queen).
English language promoted over Welsh/Irish/Scots and all.

4. Why “Strange case”?

Because:
1. Unification was not by revolution (like France, Germany, or Italy).
2. It was a result of parliamentary laws and suppression of other cultures.
3. British nationalism was imposed from above by the English, not created by popular movements.

Topic-12: Visualising The Nation

1. Role of Artists and symbols

During the 18th and 19th centuries, artists and poets personified nations as human figures.
Purpose- To make the idea of the nation easy to understand for common people.
Nations were often shown as female allegories (symbols) representing liberty, justice and unity.

2. France- Marianne

French artists personified France as a woman named Marianne.
Characteristics:
1. Red Cap (symbol of liberty).
2. Tricolour (French national flag).
3. Cockade (badge of revolution).
Marianne’s images appeared in paintings, coins and stamps- helped spread nationalism.

3. Germany- Germania

German artists created a female figure named Germania to represent the German nation.
Characteristics:
1. Crown of Oak leaves (symbol of heroism).
2. Sword (symbol of readiness to fight).
3. Breastplate and armour (strength).
4. Black, Red, Gold tricolour (German National Flag).

4. Importance of female allegories:

Female figures symbolized the abstract idea of a nation.
Helped people imagine the nation as a motherland to which they owed loyalty.
Played a major role in uniting people emotionally within nationalism.

Topic-13: Nationalism and Imperialism

1. Shift in Nationalism after 1871:

Before 1871- Nationalism was linked with liberty, democracy, unification (France, Germany, Italy).
After 1871- Nationalism became associated with power, rivalry and imperialism.
Newly unified nations like Germany and Italy wanted to expand their power and colonies.

2. Intense Rivalries in Europe:

By the late 19th century, European powers competed for:
1. Colonies (in Asia and Africa).
2. Markets and Resources.
3. Military strength.
Nationalist pride led to tensions among European states.

3. The Balkans- A Tense Region

Balkan region= modern day Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, etc.
Controlled by the Ottoman Empire (which was weakening).
Different ethnic groups (Slavs, Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs) wanted independence.
Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Britain- all wanted to expand influence in the Balkans.
Result- series of wars and conflicts (called Balkan wars).

4. Nationalism leading to Imperialism

Nationalism gave rise to a feeling of superiority and desire for domination.
Strong nations believed in expanding their power by controlling weaker ones.
Imperialism thus became an extension of aggressive nationalism.

5. Nationalism- Cause of World War I

By early 20th century, Nationalism mixed with Imperialism created:
1. Hostility among European powers.
2. Arms race and alliances.
3. Balkan crisis.
This ultimately led to World War I in 1914.

Conclusion

Nationalism in Europe was initially linked with liberalism, democracy and freedom.
It inspired movements in France, Germany, Italy and other regions.
Led to the creation of nation-states (e.g., Germany in 1871, Italy in 1871).
After unification, Nationalism became narrow, intolerant and aggressive.
Linked more with power politics and imperialism than with democracy.
Nationalism encouraged militarism and competition among European powers.
Balkan region (Southeast Europe) became a major conflict zone.
Different ethnic groups wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire.
Big European powers (Russia, Austria, Germany, Britain) also wanted control.
This mixture of Nationalism + Imperialist Rivalry created instability.
By early 20th century, nationalism had turned into hostility and rivalry.
Countries formed alliances and competed for colonies, resources and power.